Semiotics
In the world today, everywhere you turn there is some sort of sign. We communicate through these signs, and they're not necessarily like traffic signs. A sign is usually some sort of visual image, and we can usually learn how to decode the meaning behind these visual images by becoming familiar with the rules of how component parts work together in media. The study of signs and their meaning is known as semiotics (ˌsiːmɪˈɒtɪks,ˌsɛmɪˈɒtɪks) from the Greek σημειωτικός (simiotikos). Roland Barthes, a French literary theorist, says that "an image is denoted. It has connotations, [and] these may differ according to culture." An example of this is the idea of the number 13; in America and the UK, it is thought to be an unlucky number due to superstition (some people believe the number is unlucky in part due to the Last Supper, where there were 13 people around the table, Christ and his 12 apostles. People believe this is unlucky as Judas Iscariot was the betrayer of Christ, and was the thirteenth to sit at the table), but in Spain and Italy, it is seen as an incredibly lucky number.
One symbol that we become commonly associated with is a rose: with connotations of passion, love and romance, there is also the idea that a rose can represent virginity or a woman's genitals in terms of how the petals are formed. A media example of the rose to represent these ideas is Sam Mendes' "American Beauty" (1999). Angela Hayes, portrayed by Mena Suvari, is seen in the sexual fantasies of Lester Burnham (Kevin Spacey), her best friend's dad, surrounded often by rose petals.
Using signs is a vital part of human existence as it is the underlying factor to all communications between humans. Within semiotics, anything that can be used as human communication is seen as a sign, and this can be: gestures, facial expressions, poetry, rituals, clothes, food, music, morse code, marketing, commercials, or film, amongst many others. For example, the singer Halsey uses comparisons of highway lights or signs in a few of her songs:
(L-R: "Is There Somewhere" from the Room 93 EP, and "Drive" from the album "Badlands". The comparison here is the mention of signs on the highway: "Flashing those eyes like highway signs" vs "[...] bouncing off the exit signs I missed.")
The use of this metaphor of signs suggests that her relationships are like a highway, with many turns and intersections, but will ultimately end up leading to the final destination (happiness). The denotation here, or the signifier, is the relationship, but the connotations (or signified) that imitate or resemble the denotation are the highway signs used as the metaphor itself. These then end up becoming known as the icon. An index has either a factual or casual connection that points towards the object. Using this idea of the highway signs from Halsey's songs, a road or dual carriageway would be an index of the highway signs. A symbol has an arbitrary relationship between the signifier and the signified. The interpreter will understand the symbol through previous knowledge and experience, meaning it must be learned and agreed upon. For example, this sign doesn't have to mean "stop", but we have been taught from past knowledge that this is the case and that when this sign is seen, you have to stop.
Lastly, a metasymbol is a symbol whose meaning transcends the tangible realm of a simple one-to-one relationship. History, culture and tradition all play some sort of role in creating metasymbols, such as the dove with an olive branch, a common symbol of peace. For certain audiences as well, religious and magical signs and symbols will take on these metasymbolic properties.
Looking at another example of a media text, this is a screenshot taken from the music video for "Knuckles" by British band Moose Blood. This particular text uses shades of yellow in and a slight shadow in order to fully emphasise the camper van travelling on the side of the road, and connotes to the audience that the song will be up-tempo in terms of its beat. (From the beginning, there is a strong drum beat with a bassline that sounds like it will be a happy song.) It could also be foreshadowing the actual song itself: Eddy Brewerton sings the lines "You turned up late, but I would have waited for days, days for you", and this shot appears to be late in the day, at around about dusk. However, this image could be a contradiction overall, as the song later goes on to say, "That thing you said, "Stay beautiful", even though that I know that it's second-hand", suggesting that the song's contents are not at all happy and that the protagonist in the song may have been the second choice of the person they are singing to, who has potentially been treated poorly by their partner.
Below is the full video: